The Republicans elected Benjamin Harrison (1889-92) as Cleveland's successor. Commercial and political relations with Central and South America were strengthened and extended, as was the policy of reciprocity, though a high tariff was enacted. The pension system was enlarged, the law for free coinage of silver repealed and another for limited coinage substituted. A revolution occurred in Hawaii, the native monarchy was overthrown, and the new government applied for annexation to the United States. Congress passed a bill for the annexation of Hawaii, but Cleveland was elected again, and annexation did not occur until 1898. In 1890 our people numbered 62,947,714. (See Hawaii; and Income Tax.)
Cleveland's second term opened with the financial panic of 1893, the establishment of a low tariff and efforts to restore Hawaii to its native rulers. A dispute between Great Britain and Venezuela was settled at the instance of the United States by referring it to a tribunal of arbitration. The fourth centenary of the discovery of America was celebrated by the Columbian Exposition. The difficulty with England and Canada as to sealing in Bering Sea was settled amicably. The president extended the reform of the civil service, and used Federal troops to suppress a strike that interfered with interstate commerce.
The Republican party returned to power by the election and reëlection of William McKinley (1897-1901) and the succeeding elections of Theodore Roosevelt (1904) and William Howard Taft (1908). The political and financial question in 1896 was whether the United States should adopt gold alone or gold and silver as its monetary standard, and in 1900 gold was by law established as the standard of currency. A high tariff was also restored. In 1898 war with Spain broke out, and resulted in the acquisition of Porto Rico and the Philippines (q. v.). In 1900 the United States joined the powers of Europe in suppressing a rebellion in China. On Sept. 6, 1901, President McKinley was assassinated, and Vice-President Roosevelt (q. v.) became president. The eight years of his presidency were marked by great prosperity and expansion and by the advance of the nation to commanding position as a world-power. Among important affairs demanding the attention of Congress and the executive were the building of Panama Canal (q. v.); the reclamation of great areas of arid lands by irrigation (q. v.); the husbanding of the national resources through the cultivation of forests and the establishment of forest-reserves (q. v.); the promotion of the welfare of the Filipino; the occupancy of Cuba (q. v.) and the reëstablishment of its republic; the righting of abuses in the management of railroads and other great corporations; the completion of the Pacific cable; commercial treaties with Cuba and China; the creation of the Department of Commerce and Labor; the signing of a treaty of arbitration with Germany; the second peace-conference at The Hague (q. v.); financial control of Santo Domingo; the foundation of an American institute for the promotion of industrial peace between capital and labor; and the Pan-American Congress. In November of 1908 the United States entered into an agreement for protection of mutual rights and interests and the maintenance of national integrity and an open door in China. The most important political events and legislative acts of the next four years are summarized in the article on Mr. Taft. These include the Payne-Aldrich Tariff, the establishment of Postal Savings Banks and Parcel Post System. In 1913 a constitutional amendment was adopted providing for direct election of senators. The South has greatly developed its mineral resources, grows three times as much cotton as in 1860, and is promoting all other industries.
Books for Reading
Colonial Period (to 1760). Among general histories, which cover not only this period but others or the whole course of American history, the student should consult The American Commonwealth Series and the works of Bancroft, Bryant and Gay, Gilman, Higginson, Hildreth, McMaster, Rhodes, Schouler, Von Hoist and Winsor. Histories that deal specially with the colonies consist, among others, of Dodge's English Colonies, Doyle's English Colonies, John Fiske's works (named in the article on Fiske), Lodge's English Colonies, Marshall's History of the Colonies, Neill's English Colonization, Palfrey's History of New England and Parkman's works. The articles in this work on the separate states of the Union often mention books of reference. Nor should American chapters in The Cambridge Modern History be forgotten.
Revolutionary Era (to 1789). Channing and Hart's Guide to the Study of American History is helpful to start the study of the Revolution. Other helps are Fiske's American Revolution and Critical Period of American History; Carrington's Battles of the Revolution; Chalmers' Revolt of the Colonies; Dunning's Political Theories; Frothingham's Rise of the Republic; Hamilton's Federalist; Ludlow's War of Independence; Merriam's American Theories; Scott's Constitutional Liberty; Story's Commentaries; Sullivan's Antecedents of the Declaration; Willoughby's Nature of the State; and Winsor's Reader's Handbook. Lecky's History of England and Trevelyan's American Revolution give the English views.
The National Era (to date). Consult Bancroft (Geo.): History of the Constitution; Bancroft (H. H.): The Pacific States; Ben-
